[296]
In the descriptions of the animals which follow the general plan will be
to consider first the identification purely from a zoological point of
view, and, secondly, the connection and, wherever possible, the meaning
of the use of the various animal figures wherever they occur.
MOLLUSCA
Fasciolaria gigantea. Representations of this marine shell are found in
several places in the codices. It is the only large Fusus-like species
on the western coast of the Gulf of Mexico, and, indeed, is the largest
known American shell. It is therefore not strange that it should have
attracted the attention of the Mayas and found a place in their
writings. Several figures are shown that represent Fasciolaria (Pl. 1,
figs. 1-9). One in the Codex Vaticanus 3773 (Pl. 1, fig. 3) in common
with those shown in Pl. 1, figs. 2, 6, 9, has the spire represented by
segments of successively smaller size. The species of Fasciolaria
occurring on the Yucatan and adjacent coasts is characterized by
numerous prominent bosses or projections on its later whorls, and these,
too, appear in conventionalized form in most of the representations. In
Pl. 1, fig. 2, the second whorl, and in figs. 6, 9, the third whorl is
shown with three stout tubercles in side view, corresponding to those
found in this region of the shell. Figs. 7, 8 (Pl. 1) are glyphs
representing the same species, but as in fig. 4, the spire is omitted,
though the knobs are present. Round spots of color are evidently
intended by the markings on the shells shown in figs. 3, 5, 6 (Pl. 1).[297]
Fig. 5, shows a further modification of the spire, which here is made
like the head of a serpent.
The Mollusca in the codices are not always associated with the water
although this is usually the case. God N (Pl. 1, fig. 1) sitting with
the shell around his body is represented as in the rain and the shells
in Pl. 1, figs. 4, 6, appear under water. The snail (Maya, šot) is
considered by the Nahuas as the symbol of birth and death. The first
idea is well brought out in Pl. 1, fig. 2, where the human figure is
emerging from a shell. The same idea among the Mayas is seen in Pl. 1,
fig. 1, where god N is coming from a shell. As god N is usually
associated with the end of the year, we may have here the complementary
idea of death associated with the shell. The same meaning is brought out
in the Bologna Codex (Pl. 1, fig. 3) where the shell is decorated with
flint points, the symbol of death. As the tortoise is often identified
with the summer solstice, as previously pointed out, so the snail is
associated with the winter solstice.
Förstemann’s identification of the head-dress of god D (Dresden 5c), god
A (Dresden 9c, 13a), and god E (Dresden 11c) as representing snails is
not clear. Stempell (1908, p. 739) also follows the same course thinking
that the knob-like prominences represent the stalked eyes of snails.
This seems quite unlikely as such representations are usually short and
occur in too widely dissimilar connections. Moreover, there are
sometimes three of these instead of but a single pair (Dresden 14a). A
similar attempt has been made by Brinton to identify the head-dress of
the death god (god A) as the snail. The head-dress in Dresden 13a and
13b associated with god A looks far more like the head and upper jaw of
some mammal.
Oliva. A univalve shell frequently represented is of an oval shape,
pointed at each end, with a longitudinal lip and a short spire at one
extremity. This is doubtless a species of Oliva, a marine shell. Mr.
Charles W. Johnson informs us that O. reticulata is the species
occurring on the Yucatan shores, while O. splendidula is found in
other parts of the Gulf of Mexico. Representations of this shell are
shown in Pl. 1, figs. 10-12. In figs. 10, 11, the lip and spire are
apparent but in fig. 12 the lip[298] only is seen as a white fissure against
the general dark background. An earthenware vessel representing a tapir
(Pl. 28, fig. 1) shows a string of Oliva shells about the animal’s
neck and similar strings very often decorate the belts worn by the
personages represented on the stelae of Copan.
The shell in the codices is found in most cases to represent zero in the
Maya numerical calculations. Just as a bar has the meaning five, and a
dot one, so the shell often has the signification of zero. This is seen
especially in the numeration by position in the codices (Pl. 1, figs. 7,
8, 10-14).
Other Mollusca. In addition to the species just described at least two
or three others occur in the Nuttall Codex, but so conventionalized that
it is out of the question to hazard a guess at their identity. One (Pl.
1, figs. 16, 17) is a bivalve with long pointed shell, another (Pl. 1,
figs. 18-20) is rounder with conventionalized scroll-like markings.
Figs. 21, 22 (Pl. 1) may be a side view of the closed bivalve shown in
figs. 16, 17, or possibly a species of cowry. In like manner, fig. 13 is
probably a side view of the mollusc shown in fig. 14, for it is seen
that in each case the figure showing the two opened valves has a
bipartite extended foot, whereas that of the single valve is simple.
This doubling of the single median foot of the bivalve may be an
artistic necessity for the sake of balance, or perhaps represents both
foot and siphon at the same end. Figs. 23, 24 (Pl. 1) seem to represent
molluscs still further reduced and conventionalized. These molluscs from
the Nuttall Codex (Pl. 1, figs. 15-24) are almost all found represented
in the blue water, whereas those which stand for zero in the Maya
codices have no immediate association with either water or rain.
INSECTA
The Honey Bee (Melipona). A portion of the Tro-Cortesianus appears to
treat of apiculture, as previously noted, or, at all events, contains
numerous figures of bees, some of which are shown in Pl. 2. As stated by
Stempell (1908, p. 735) this is doubtless a species of Melipona,
probably M. fulvipes or do[299]mestica. It is well known that this bee
was kept by the ancient Mexicans, and what appear to be improvised hives
are shown in Pl. 2, figs. 7, 10, where the combs are noted depending
from the ceiling or walls. These combs are seen to be composed of cells
roughly four-sided for the most part, though in fig. 11 several
hexagonal cells are present in the mass of comb held by the black god,
M. Darwin, in his Origin of Species, has called attention to the form
of the comb built by this bee, and considers its irregular cells of from
three to six sides intermediate in their degree of perfection between
those of the bumble bee (Bombus) and the honey bee of Europe (Apis
mellifica). The Caban form in connection with the hive in fig.
10 may have some phonetic significance as kab is honey in Maya.
This sign occurs very frequently in the pages devoted to apiculture.
The figures of the bees in the codex show a number of interesting
variations. In figs. 1-3, 5, 11, the insect is less conventionalized
than in figs. 4, 6 (Pl. 2). The hairy feet are well indicated as well as
the segmented body and a single pair of wings. All the figures show an
anterodorsal view so that, on account of the size of the first pair of
legs, only the tops of the second pair appear in Pl. 2, figs. 1, 3, 5.
In fig. 2, however, two pairs are seen, and in figs. 4, 6, the
anthropomorphic tendency is further shown by providing the insect with
two pairs of limbs each with four or five digits, and a conventionalized
face, eyes and mouth. In Pl. 2, fig. 1, the bee is represented without
mouthparts but antennae only. This may indicate a drone or a queen bee
that takes no active part in the work of gathering honey or making comb.
Fig. 2 is perhaps the least reduced of any of the figures and shows the
worker bee with antennae and mouthparts.
The so-called “cloud balls” of the day sign Cauac (Pl. 2, fig. 8) may
represent the honey comb. Cauac is usually supposed to have some
connection with lightning and thunder although Valentini agrees with
the authors in associating Cauac with the bees and honey. The
Cauac-like forms in Pl. 2, figs. 7, 10, have been described above as
hives. The representation of legs in the full drawing of a bee as four
large limbs, an anterior and a[300] posterior pair, coupled with the method
of drawing the insect as seen from above and in front, may have led to
its final expression by an X-shaped mark shown in connection with the
hives (Pl. 2, figs. 7, 10). The X is also seen in the day sign Cauac.
Apiculture was common among the various peoples of Central America and
Mexico. Las Casas speaks of hives of bees and Gomara states that the
bees were small and the honey rather bitter. Clavigero (Vol. 1, p.
68)300-* mentions six varieties of bees which were found in
Mexico;—the first is the same as the common bee of Europe, the second
differs from the first only in having no sting and is the bee of Yucatan
and Chiapas which makes the fine clear honey of aromatic flavor. The
third species resembles in its form the winged ants but is smaller than
the common bee and without a sting. The fourth is a yellow bee, smaller
than the common one but, like it, furnished with a sting. The fifth is a
small bee without a sting which constructs hives of an orbicular form in
subterranean cavities and the honey is sour and somewhat bitter. The
Tlalpipiolli, which is the sixth species, is black and yellow, of the
size of the common bee, but has no sting.
The natives of the country at the present time often cultivate hives of
bees in logs which they hollow out for this purpose and keep in a
specially constructed shelter. It is, however, rather the ceremonial
side of apiculture that is the interesting feature and this is clearly
emphasized in the Tro-Cortesianus. The section in this manuscript (80b,
103-112), as has been noted, is taken up almost exclusively with the
culture of the bee and in all probability represents a definite
religious ceremony or series of rites which are connected intimately
with bees and honey. Landa (1864, p. 292)300-† states that in the
month Tzoz the natives prepare for a ceremony in behalf of the bees
which takes place in the following month, Tzec. In the month Mol
another fiesta is undertaken in behalf of these insects so that[301] the
gods may provide an abundance of flowers for the bees (Landa, 1864, p.
306).301-*
It seems clear therefore that we have represented in the pages of the
Tro-Cortesianus referred to, the rites carried out in this connection.
The more or less realistic drawings of the bees (Pl. 2, figs. 1-6, 9)
represent the god of the bees and to him offerings of food and incense
are being made. Pl. 2, fig. 11, shows the war god (M) with his eagle
head-dress offering a mass of honey in the comb to the god of the bees.
Curiously enough the bee does not seem to be represented in the Dresden
Codex. Förstemann’s identification of the head-dress of the goddess in
Dresden 9a as a bee does not seem to us to be correct.
In addition to the bees, there occurs in the Nuttall Codex 4 (Pl. 3,
fig. 4) a curious representation of an insect with a pointed beak-like
structure and a spine at the posterior extremity of its human-like body.
It is engaged in apparent conflict with a man and may represent a
hornet.
Blow-fly (Sarcophaga). Two figures in the Tro-Cortesianus (Pl. 3,
figs. 1, 2) are of special interest since they appear to have been
frequently regarded as picturing snakes attacking men. These are
thick-bodied sinuous creatures distinguished by the curious conformation
of the mouth and by a lateral row of dots that may represent the
metameric spiracles or, as commonly, a demarcation between dorsal and
ventral surfaces. That these are maggots of a blow-fly (Sarcophaga)
there can be little doubt, not only on account of their mouth parts
which are similar to those of the agave maggot (see later) but also
because of their relation to God F whom they are devouring. The latter
in fig. 1 is doubtless dead as shown by the closed eye and it is the
habit of the blow-fly to deposit its eggs in the nasal cavity of dead
animals as well as elsewhere on the body. The fact that in each case a
maggot is attacking the god’s nose may indicate that this habit was
known to the artist who, consequently,[302] shows the larvae in this
position. In Pl. 3, fig. 2, the god’s eye is not closed but his passive
attitude while the maggot devours his hand and nose does not indicate
that he is in full possession of his strength. In addition to the
blow-fly, a screw-fly (Chrysomyia) lays its eggs on the bodies of
animals, often on persons sleeping, and these may hatch almost at once
into small maggots that penetrate the skin. It may be, therefore, that
the larvae here considered belong to this genus.
In addition to god F, in Tro-Cortesianus 24d, there is another
representation of the same god being attacked by a vulture. This bird is
evidently eating his nose. In this case the god is shown with the closed
eye as in 27d. In Tro-Cortesianus 25d the fly seems to be attacking the
mouth of god F. From the fact that no other god is ever found in this
connection it may be suggested that there may be some relation between
god F as a god of human sacrifice and the fact that his dead body is
being eaten by blow-flies and vultures. A portion of the body of the
person sacrificed was usually eaten by those taking part in the
ceremony.
Lepidopterous Insects. In Tro-Cortesianus 28c (Pl. 3, fig. 3) is shown a
second insect larva with curiously formed mouth parts. It is represented
as attacking agave which is springing from the ground as shown by the
Caban signs in the codex. Hough (1908, p. 591) has shown this to be
the larva of Acentrocneme kollari Felder, “called by the Mexicans
guson, and in Nahuatl mescuillin.” This grub, he says, is white,
about an inch long, and tunnels the fleshy leaves of the agave. It is
greatly prized as an article of food for “gusones to this day are
collected in April, boiled, wrapped in the epidermis of the agave, sold
on the streets of Mexico, and are eaten with avidity. To all appearances
they are nourishing and palatable, and it is said that connoisseurs
prefer them to oysters or swallows’ nests.” Hough believes “that the
discovery of the sap-yielding quality of the agave was through search
for these larvae.”
In the Nuttall Codex occur numerous representations of insects, some of
which appear to represent butterflies or moths (Pl. 3, figs. 5-8) but
these are quite unidentifiable. That shown[303] in fig. 6 is colored blue in
the original, while the others are of various colors. Possibly the round
markings on the wings in figs. 5, 8, represent the ocelli on the wings
of certain species of moths. In this connection, too, it is interesting
to compare the conventionalized butterfly with its single eye and
pointed antennae from the Aubin manuscript (Pl. 3, fig. 9) with one
drawn on the same plan from the Nuttall Codex (Pl. 3, fig. 8).
